The Trivial Troot

Friday, 17th Dec, 2021 by Krilling for Company in √2, Integer sequences, Irrational numbers, Mathematics, Square root of 2, Square Roots, Triangular Numbers and tagged 1.414213562373, 20, 4.47213595499957939, √2, integer sequences, integers, irrational numbers, polygonal numbers, square root of 2, square root of 20, Square Roots, Triangular Numbers, triangular roots, troot, troots | Leave a comment

Here is the square root of 2:
√2 = 1·414213562373095048801688724209698078569671875376948073176679738...
Here is the square root of 20:
√20 = 4·472135954999579392818347337462552470881236719223051448541794491...
And here are the first few triangular numbers:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105, 120, 136, 153, 171, 190, 210, 231, 253, 276, 300, 325, 351, 378, 406, 435, 465, 496, 528, 561, 595, 630, 666, 703, 741, 780, 820, 861, 903, 946, 990, 1035...
What links √2 and √20 strongly with the triangular numbers? At first glance, nothing does. The square roots of 2 and 20 are very different from the triangular numbers. Square roots like those are irrational, that is, they can’t be represented as a fraction or ratio of integers. This means that their digits go on for ever, never falling into a regular pattern. So the digits are hard to calculate. The sequence of triangular numbers also goes on for ever, but it’s very easy to calculate. The triangular numbers get their name from the way they can be arranged into simple triangles, like this:
* = 1

* ** = 3 * ** *** = 6 * ** *** **** = 10

* ** *** **** ***** = 15
The 1st triangular number is 1, the 2nd is 3 = 1+2, the 3rd is 6 = 1+2+3, the 4th is 10 = 1+2+3+4, and so on. The n-th triangular number = 1+2+3…+n, so the formula for the n-th triangular number is n*(n+1)/2 = (n^2+n)/2. So what’s the 123456789th triangular number? Easy: it’s 7620789436823655 (see A077694 at the OEIS). But what’s the 123456789th digit of √2 or √20? That’s not easy to answer. But here’s something else that is easy to answer. If tri(n) is the n-th triangular number, what are the values of n when tri(n) is one digit longer than tri(n-1)? That is, what are the values of n when tri(n) increases in length by one digit? If you look at the beginning of the sequence, you can see the first three answers:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105...
1 is one digit longer than nothing, as it were, and 1 = tri(1); 10 is one digit longer than 6 and 10 = tri(4); 105 is one digit longer than 91 and 105 = tri(14). Here are some more answers, giving triangular numbers on the left, as they increase in length by one digit, and the n of tri(n) on the right:
1 ← 1 10 ← 4 105 ← 14 1035 ← 45 10011 ← 141 100128 ← 447 1000405 ← 1414 10001628 ← 4472 100005153 ← 14142 1000006281 ← 44721 10000020331 ← 141421 100000404505 ← 447214 1000001326005 ← 1414214 10000002437316 ← 4472136 100000012392316 ← 14142136 1000000042485480 ← 44721360 10000000037150046 ← 141421356 100000000000018810 ← 447213595 1000000000179470703 ← 1414213562 10000000002237948990 ← 4472135955 100000000010876002500 ← 14142135624 1000000000022548781025 ← 44721359550 10000000000026940078203 ← 141421356237 100000000000242416922750 ← 447213595500 1000000000000572687476751 ← 1414213562373 10000000000004117080477500 ← 4472135955000 100000000000007771272992046 ← 14142135623731 1000000000000031576491575006 ← 44721359549996 10000000000000140731196136705 ← 141421356237310 100000000000000250760786750861 ← 447213595499958 1000000000000000638090771126060 ← 1414213562373095 10000000000000000479330922588410 ← 4472135954999579 100000000000000000169466805816725 ← 14142135623730950 1000000000000000025572412483843115 ← 44721359549995794 10000000000000000087657358700327265 ← 141421356237309505 100000000000000000097566473134542830 ← 447213595499957939 1000000000000000000987561276980703725 ← 1414213562373095049 10000000000000000003048443380954913921 ← 4472135954999579393 100000000000000000006832246143819194316 ← 14142135623730950488 1000000000000000000014155501020518731556 ← 44721359549995793928
Can you spot the patterns? When tri(n) has an odd number of digits, n approximates the digits of √2; when tri(n) has an even number of digits, n approximates the digits of √20. And what can you call the approximations? Well, in a way they’re triangular roots so I’m calling them troots. Here are the troots for tri(n) with an odd number of digits:
1 → 1 14 → 105 141 → 10011 1414 → 1000405 14142 → 100005153 141421 → 10000020331 1414214 → 1000001326005 14142136 → 100000012392316 141421356 → 10000000037150046 1414213562 → 1000000000179470703 14142135624 → 100000000010876002500 141421356237 → 10000000000026940078203 1414213562373 → 1000000000000572687476751 14142135623731 → 100000000000007771272992046 141421356237310 → 10000000000000140731196136705 1414213562373095 → 1000000000000000638090771126060 14142135623730950 → 100000000000000000169466805816725 141421356237309505 → 10000000000000000087657358700327265 1414213562373095049 → 1000000000000000000987561276980703725 14142135623730950488 → 100000000000000000006832246143819194316 14142135623730950488... = √2 (without the decimal point)
When I first found these patterns, I thought I might have discovered something mathematically profound. I hadn’t. Troots are trivial. I think troots are beautiful too, but a little thought soon showed me how easily and obviously they arise. Remember that the formula for tri(n), the n-th triangular number, is tri(n) = (n^2+n)/2. As you can see above, when tri(n) is increasing in length by one digit, it rises above the next power of 10, which always begins with 1 followed by only 0s. Therefore n^2+n will begin with the digit 2 followed by some 0s, which then becomes 1 followed by some 0s as (n^2+n) is divided by 2. So n for tri(n) increasing-by-one-digit will be the first integer, n, where n^2+n yields a number with 2 as the leading digit followed by more and more 0s.

And that’s why n approximates the digits of √2·0000… and √20·0000…, for tri(n) with an odd and even number of digits, respectively. Similar trootful patterns exist in other bases and for other polygonal numbers, like the square numbers, the pentagonal numbers and so on. The troots are beautiful to see but trivial to explain. All the same, there is a sense in which you can say the mindless sequence of triangular numbers is “calculating” the digits of √2 and √20. It even rounds up the final digits when necessary:
1414214 → 1000001326005 14142136 → 100000012392316 141421356 → 10000000037150046 141421356... = √2 [...] 14142135624 → 100000000010876002500 141421356237 → 10000000000026940078203 141421356237... = √2 [...] 14142135623731 → 100000000000007771272992046 141421356237310 → 10000000000000140731196136705 1414213562373095 → 1000000000000000638090771126060 1414213562373095... = √2 [...] 1414213562373095049 → 1000000000000000000987561276980703725 14142135623730950488 → 100000000000000000006832246143819194316 14142135623730950488... = √2

The Power of Powder

Sunday, 13th Jun, 2021 by Krilling for Company in √2, Infinity, Irrational numbers, Mathematics, Square root of 2, Square Roots and tagged Agnès Leblanc, √2, dust, fractions, French language, grains de sable, grains of sand, irrational numbers, Ludmilla Duchêne, mathematics, poussière, powder, quotes about mathematics, racine carrée de 2, rational numbers, Rationnel mon Q, sand, square root of 2, Square Roots | Leave a comment

• Racine carrée de 2, c’est 1,414 et des poussières… Et quelles poussières ! Des grains de sable qui empêchent d’écrire racine de 2 comme une fraction. Autrement dit, cette racine n’est pas dans Q. — Rationnel mon Q: 65 exercices de styles, Ludmilla Duchêne et Agnès Leblanc (2010)

• The square root of 2 is 1·414 and dust… And what dust! Grains of sand that stop you writing the root of 2 as a fraction. Put another way, this root isn’t in Q [the set of rational numbers].

Root Rite

Monday, 17th Feb, 2020 by Krilling for Company in √2, Geometry, Infinity, Integer sequences, Irrational numbers, Mathematics, Square root of 2 and tagged √2, calculating square roots, diagonal of a square, digits of √2, irrational numbers, Pythagoras' theorem, square root of 2, Square Roots, unit square | Leave a comment

A square contains one of the great — perhaps the greatest — intellectual rites of passage. If each side of the square is 1 unit in length, how long are its diagonals? By Pythagoras’ theorem:

a^2 + b^2 = c^2
1^2 + 1^2 = 2, so c = √2

So each diagonal is √2 units long. But what is √2? It’s a new kind of number: an irrational number. That doesn’t mean that it’s illogical or against reason, but that it isn’t exactly equal to any ratio of integers like 3/2 or 17/12. When represented as decimals, the digits of all integer ratios either end or fall, sooner or later, into an endlessly repeating pattern:

3/2 = 1.5

17/12 = 1.416,666,666,666,666…

577/408 = 1.414,2156 8627 4509 8039,2156 8627 4509 8039,2156 8627 4509 8039,2156 8627 4509 8039,2156 8627 4509 8039,…

But when √2 is represented as a decimal, its digits go on for ever without any such pattern:

√2 = 1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,462,107…

The intellectual rite of passage comes when you understand why √2 is irrational and behaves like that:

Proof of the irrationality of √2

1. Suppose that there is some ratio, a/b, such that

2. a and b have no factors in common and

3. a^2/b^2 = 2.

4. It follows that a^2 = 2b^2.

5. Therefore a is even and there is some number, c, such that 2c = a.

6. Substituting c in #4, we derive (2c)^2 = 4c^2 = 2b^2.

7. Therefore 2c^2 = b^2 and b is also even.

8. But #7 contradicts #2 and the supposition that a and b have no factors in common.

9. Therefore, by reductio ad absurdum, there is no ratio, a/b, such that a^2/b^2 = 2. Q.E.D.

Given that subtle proof, you might think the digits of an irrational number like √2 would be difficult to calculate. In fact, they’re easy. And one method is so easy that it’s often re-discovered by recreational mathematicians. Suppose that a is an estimate for √2 but it’s too high. Clearly, if 2/a = b, then b will be too low. To get a better estimate, you simply split the difference: a = (a + b) / 2. Then do it again and again:

a = (2/a + a) / 2

If you first set a = 1, the estimates improve like this:

(2/1 + 1) / 2 = 3/2
2 – (3/2)^2 = -0.25
(2/(3/2) + 3/2) / 2 = 17/12
2 – (17/12)^2 = -0.00694…
(2/(17/12) + 17/12) / 2 = 577/408
2 – (577/408)^2 = -0.000006007…
(2/(577/408) + 577/408) / 2 = 665857/470832
2 – (665857/470832)^2 = -0.00000000000451…

In fact, the estimate doubles in accuracy (or better) at each stage (the first digit to differ is underlined):

1.5… = 3/2 (matching digits = 1)
1.4… = √2

1.416… = 17/12 (m=3)
1.414… = √2

1.414,215… = 577/408 (m=6)
1.414,213… = √2

1.414,213,562,374… = 665857/470832 (m=12)
1.414,213,562,373… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,689… = 886731088897/627013566048 (m=24)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,377… (m=48)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,6… (m=97)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,5… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,8… (m=196)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,5… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,571,470,109,559,971,605,970,274,534,59
6,862,014,728,517,418,640,889,198,609,552,329,230,484,308,714,321,450,839,762,603,627,995,251,407,98
9,687,253,396,546,331,808,829,640,620,615,258,352,395,054,745,750,287,759,961,729,835,575,220,337,53
1,857,011,354,374,603,43… (m=392)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,571,470,109,559,971,605,970,274,534,59
6,862,014,728,517,418,640,889,198,609,552,329,230,484,308,714,321,450,839,762,603,627,995,251,407,98
9,687,253,396,546,331,808,829,640,620,615,258,352,395,054,745,750,287,759,961,729,835,575,220,337,53
1,857,011,354,374,603,40… = √2

1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,571,470,109,559,971,605,970,274,534,59
6,862,014,728,517,418,640,889,198,609,552,329,230,484,308,714,321,450,839,762,603,627,995,251,407,98
9,687,253,396,546,331,808,829,640,620,615,258,352,395,054,745,750,287,759,961,729,835,575,220,337,53
1,857,011,354,374,603,408,498,847,160,386,899,970,699,004,815,030,544,027,790,316,454,247,823,068,49
2,936,918,621,580,578,463,111,596,668,713,013,015,618,568,987,237,235,288,509,264,861,249,497,715,42
1,833,420,428,568,606,014,682,472,077,143,585,487,415,565,706,967,765,372,022,648,544,701,585,880,16
2,075,847,492,265,722,600,208,558,446,652,145,839,889,394,437,092,659,180,031,138,824,646,815,708,26
3,010,059,485,870,400,318,648,034,219,489,727,829,064,104,507,263,688,131,373,985,525,611,732,204,02
4,509,122,770,022,694,112,757,362,728,049,574… (m=783)
1.414,213,562,373,095,048,801,688,724,209,698,078,569,671,875,376,948,073,176,679,737,990,732,478,46
2,107,038,850,387,534,327,641,572,735,013,846,230,912,297,024,924,836,055,850,737,212,644,121,497,09
9,935,831,413,222,665,927,505,592,755,799,950,501,152,782,060,571,470,109,559,971,605,970,274,534,59
6,862,014,728,517,418,640,889,198,609,552,329,230,484,308,714,321,450,839,762,603,627,995,251,407,98
9,687,253,396,546,331,808,829,640,620,615,258,352,395,054,745,750,287,759,961,729,835,575,220,337,53
1,857,011,354,374,603,408,498,847,160,386,899,970,699,004,815,030,544,027,790,316,454,247,823,068,49
2,936,918,621,580,578,463,111,596,668,713,013,015,618,568,987,237,235,288,509,264,861,249,497,715,42
1,833,420,428,568,606,014,682,472,077,143,585,487,415,565,706,967,765,372,022,648,544,701,585,880,16
2,075,847,492,265,722,600,208,558,446,652,145,839,889,394,437,092,659,180,031,138,824,646,815,708,26
3,010,059,485,870,400,318,648,034,219,489,727,829,064,104,507,263,688,131,373,985,525,611,732,204,02
4,509,122,770,022,694,112,757,362,728,049,573… = √2

Performativizing the Polygonic #2

Tuesday, 16th Apr, 2019 by Krilling for Company in √2, Base Behavior, Fractals, Geometry, φ, Mathematics, Phi, Square root of 2 and tagged √2, √½, fractal geometry, fractals, geometry, golden section, Hexagons, jumping point, math, mathematics, maths, moving point, octagons, Pentagons, phi, random jumps, recreational math, recreational mathematics, recreational maths, Sierpiński carpet, Sierpiński triangle, square root of 2, Squares, Triangles | Leave a comment

Suppose a café offers you free drinks for three days. You can have tea or coffee in any order and any number of times. If you want tea every day of the three, you can have it. So here’s a question: how many ways can you choose from two kinds of drink in three days? One simple way is to number each drink, tea = 1, coffee = 2, then count off the choices like this:

1: 111 2: 112 3: 121 4: 122 5: 211 6: 212 7: 221 8: 222

Choice #1 is 111, which means tea every day. Choice #6 is 212, which means coffee on day 1, tea on day 2 and coffee on day 3. Now look at the counting again and the way the numbers change: 111, 112, 121, 122, 211… It’s really base 2 using 1 and 2 rather than 0 and 1. That’s why there are 8 ways to choose two drinks over three days: 8 = 2^3. Next, note that you use the same number of 1s to count the choices as the number of 2s. There are twelve 1s and twelve 2s, because each number has a mirror: 111 has 222, 112 has 221, 121 has 212, and so on.

Now try the number of ways to choose from three kinds of drink (tea, coffee, orange juice) over two days:

11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33 (c=9)

There are 9 ways to choose, because 9 = 3^2. And each digit, 1, 2, 3, is used exactly six times when you write the choices. Now try the number of ways to choose from three kinds of drink over three days:

111, 112, 113, 121, 122, 123, 131, 132, 133, 211, 212, 213, 221, 222, 223, 231, 232, 233, 311, 312, 313, 321, 322, 323, 331, 332, 333 (c=27)

There are 27 ways and (by coincidence) each digit is used 27 times to write the choices. Now try three drinks over four days:

1111, 1112, 1113, 1121, 1122, 1123, 1131, 1132, 1133, 1211, 1212, 1213, 1221, 1222, 1223, 1231, 1232, 1233, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1321, 1322, 1323, 1331, 1332, 1333, 2111, 2112, 2113, 2121, 2122, 2123, 2131, 2132, 2133, 2211, 2212, 2213, 2221, 2222, 2223, 2231, 2232, 2233, 2311, 2312, 2313, 2321, 2322, 2323, 2331, 2332, 2333, 3111, 3112, 3113, 3121, 3122, 3123, 3131, 3132, 3133, 3211, 3212, 3213, 3221, 3222, 3223, 3231, 3232, 3233, 3311, 3312, 3313, 3321, 3322, 3323, 3331, 3332, 3333 (c=81)

There are 81 ways to choose and each digit is used 108 times. But the numbers don’t have represent choices of drink in a café. How many ways can a point inside an equilateral triangle jump four times half-way towards the vertices of the triangle? It’s the same as the way to choose from three drinks over four days. And because the point jumps toward each vertex in a symmetrical way the same number of times, you get a nice even pattern, like this:

vertices = 3, jump = 1/2

Every time the point jumps half-way towards a particular vertex, its position is marked in a unique colour. The fractal, also known as a Sierpiński triangle, actually represents all possible choices for an indefinite number of jumps. Here’s the same rule applied to a square. There are four vertices, so the point is tracing all possible ways to choose four vertices for an indefinite number of jumps:

v = 4, jump = 1/2

As you can see, it’s not an obvious fractal. But what if the point jumps two-thirds of the way to its target vertex and an extra target is added at the centre of the square? This attractive fractal appears:

v = 4 + central target, jump = 2/3

If the central target is removed and an extra target is added on each side, this fractal appears:

v = 4 + 4 midpoints, jump = 2/3

That fractal is known as a Sierpiński carpet. Now up to the pentagon. This fractal of endlessly nested contingent pentagons is created by a point jumping 1/φ = 0·6180339887… of the distance towards the five vertices:

v = 5, jump = 1/φ

With a central target in the pentagon, this fractal appears:

v = 5 + central, jump = 1/φ

The central red pattern fits exactly inside the five that surround it:

v = 5 + central, jump = 1/φ (closeup)

v = 5 + c, jump = 1/φ (animated)

For a fractal of endlessly nested contingent hexagons, the jump is 2/3:

v = 6, jump = 2/3

With a central target, you get a filled variation of the hexagonal fractal:

v = 6 + c, jump = 2/3

And for a fractal of endlessly nested contingent octagons, the jump is 1/√2 = 0·7071067811… = √½:

v = 8, jump = 1/√2

Previously pre-posted:

• Performativizing the Polygonic

Back to Drac’

Thursday, 7th Feb, 2019 by Krilling for Company in √2, Dragon Curves, Fractals, Geometry, Mathematics, Square root of 2, Squares and tagged 1/√2, animated gifs, √2, Davis-Knuth dragon, Dragon Curves, fractal geometry, fractals, geometry, math, mathematics, maths, reciprocal of the square root of 2, recreational math, recreational mathematics, recreational maths, square root of 2, Squares, twin-dragon curve | Leave a comment

draconic, adj. /drəˈkɒnɪk/ pertaining to, or of the nature of, a dragon. [Latin draco, -ōnem, < Greek δράκων dragon] — The Oxford English Dictionary

In Curvous Energy, I looked at the strange, beautiful and complex fractal known as the dragon curve and showed how it can be created from a staid and sedentary square:

A dragon curve

Here are the stages whereby the dragon curve is created from a square. Note how each square at one stage generates a pair of further squares at the next stage:

Dragon curve from squares #1

Dragon curve from squares #2

Dragon curve from squares #3

Dragon curve from squares #4

Dragon curve from squares #5

Dragon curve from squares #6

Dragon curve from squares #7

Dragon curve from squares #8

Dragon curve from squares #9

Dragon curve from squares #10

Dragon curve from squares #11

Dragon curve from squares #12

Dragon curve from squares #13

Dragon curve from squares #14

Dragon curve from squares (animated)

The construction is very easy and there’s no tricky trigonometry, because you can use the vertices and sides of each old square to generate the vertices of the two new squares. But what happens if you use lines rather than squares to generate the dragon curve? You’ll discover that less is more:

Dragon curve from lines #1

Dragon curve from lines #2

Dragon curve from lines #3

Dragon curve from lines #4

Dragon curve from lines #5

Each line at one stage generates a pair of further lines at the next stage, but there’s no simple way to use the original line to generate the new ones. You have to use trigonometry and set the new lines at 45° to the old one. You also have to shrink the new lines by a fixed amount, 1/√2 = 0·70710678118654752… Here are further stages:

Dragon curve from lines #6

Dragon curve from lines #7

Dragon curve from lines #8

Dragon curve from lines #9

Dragon curve from lines #10

Dragon curve from lines #11

Dragon curve from lines #12

Dragon curve from lines #13

Dragon curve from lines #14

Dragon curve from lines (animated)

But once you have a program that can adjust the new lines, you can experiment with new angles. Here’s a dragon curve in which one new line is at an angle of 10°, while the other remains at 45° (after which the full shape is rotated by 180° because it looks better that way):

Dragon curve 10° and 45°

Dragon curve 10° and 45° (animated)

Dragon curve 10° and 45° (coloured)

Here are more examples of dragon curves generated with one line at 45° and the other line at a different angle:

Dragon curve 65°

Dragon curve 65° (anim)

Dragon curve 65° (col)

Dragon curve 80°

Dragon curve 80° (anim)

Dragon curve 80° (col)

Dragon curve 135°

Dragon curve 135° (anim)

Dragon curve 250°

Dragon curve 250° (anim)

Dragon curve 250° (col)

Dragon curve 260°

Dragon curve 260° (anim)

Dragon curve 260° (col)

Dragon curve 340°

Dragon curve 340° (anim)

Dragon curve 340° (col)

Dragon curve 240° and 20°

Dragon curve 240° and 20° (anim)

Dragon curve 240° and 20° (col)

Dragon curve various angles (anim)

Previously pre-posted:

• Curvous Energy — a first look at dragon curves

Pi and By

Wednesday, 19th Dec, 2018 by Krilling for Company in √2, Base Behavior, Binary numbers, Integer sequences, Irrational numbers, π, Mathematics, Pi, Square root of 2 and tagged 2, 572, 59609420837337474, 8410815, A049364, √2, digits, integers, irrational numbers, π, math, mathematics, maths, normal numbers, OEIS, Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, recreational math, recreational mathematics, recreational maths, transcendental numbers | Leave a comment

Here’s √2 in base 2:

√2 = 1.01101010000010011110... (base=2)

And in base 3:

√2 = 1.10201122122200121221... (base=3)

And in bases 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10:

√2 = 1.12220021321212133303... (b=4) √2 = 1.20134202041300003420... (b=5) √2 = 1.22524531420552332143... (b=6) √2 = 1.26203454521123261061... (b=7) √2 = 1.32404746317716746220... (b=8) √2 = 1.36485805578615303608... (b=9) √2 = 1.41421356237309504880... (b=10)

And here’s π in the same bases:

π = 11.00100100001111110110... (b=2) π = 10.01021101222201021100... (b=3) π = 03.02100333122220202011... (b=4) π = 03.03232214303343241124... (b=5) π = 03.05033005141512410523... (b=6) π = 03.06636514320361341102... (b=7) π = 03.11037552421026430215... (b=8) π = 03.12418812407442788645... (b=9) π = 03.14159265358979323846... (b=10)

Mathematicians know that in all standard bases, the digits of √2 and π go on for ever, without falling into any regular pattern. These numbers aren’t merely irrational but transcedental. But are they also normal? That is, in each base b, do the digits 0 to [b-1] occur with the same frequency 1/b? (In general, a sequence of length l will occur in a normal number with frequency 1/(b^l).) In base 2, are there as many 1s as 0s in the digits of √2 and π? In base 3, are there as many 2s as 1s and 0s? And so on.

It’s a simple question, but so far it’s proved impossible to answer. Another question starts very simple but quickly gets very difficult. Here are the answers so far at the Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS):

2, 572, 8410815, 59609420837337474 – A049364

The sequence is defined as the “Smallest number that is digitally balanced in all bases 2, 3, … n”. In base 2, the number 2 is 10, which has one 1 and one 0. In bases 2 and 3, 572 = 1000111100 and 210012, respectively. 1000111100 has five 1s and five 0s; 210012 has two 2s, two 1s and two 0s. Here are the numbers of A049364 in the necessary bases:

10 (n=2) 1000111100, 210012 (n=572) 100000000101011010111111, 120211022110200, 200011122333 (n=8410815) 11010011110001100111001111010010010001101011100110000010, 101201112000102222102011202221201100, 3103301213033102101223212002, 1000001111222333324244344 (n=59609420837337474)

But what number, a(6), satisfies the definition for bases 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6? According to the notes at the OEIS, a(6) > 5^434. That means finding a(6) is way beyond the power of present-day computers. But I assume a quantum computer could crack it. And maybe someone will come up with a short-cut or even an algorithm that supplies a(b) for any base b. Either way, I think we’ll get there, π and by.

Radical Sheet

Thursday, 26th May, 2016 by Krilling for Company in √2, Fractals, Mathematics, Rep-Tiles and tagged animated gif, animated gifs, √2, cross, dividing and discarding, fractal, fractal cross, fractal geometry, fractals, geometry, math, mathematics, maths, paper, paper sizes, radical, radical sheet, recreational math, recreational mathematics, recreational maths, rectangle, rectangles, sheet of paper, square root of two, tessellation, tessellations | Leave a comment

If you take a sheet of standard-sized paper and fold it in half from top to bottom, the folded sheet has the same proportions as the original, namely √2 : 1. In other words, if x = √2 / 2, then 1 / x = √2:

√2 = 1.414213562373…, √2 / 2 = 0.707106781186…, 1 / 0.707106781186… = 1.414213562373…

So you could say that paper has radical sheet (the square or other root of a number is also called its radix and √ is known as the radical sign). When a rectangle has the proportions √2 : 1, it can be tiled with an infinite number of copies of itself, the first copy having ½ the area of the original, the second ¼, the third ⅛, and so on. The radical sheet below is tiled with ten diminishing copies of itself, the final two having the same area:

You can also tile a radical sheet with six copies of itself, two copies having ¼ the area of the original and four having ⅛:

This tiling is when you might say the radical turns crucial, because you can create a fractal cross from it by repeatedly dividing and discarding. Suppose you divide a radical sheet into six copies as above, then discard two of the ⅛-sized rectangles, like this:

Stage 1

Then repeat with the smaller rectangles:

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Animated version

Fractile cross

The cross is slanted, but it’s easy to rotate the original rectangle and produce an upright cross:

Pair on a D-String

Thursday, 20th Nov, 2014 by Krilling for Company in √2, Base Behavior, Binary numbers, π, Mathematics, Philosophy, Philosophy of mathematics and tagged archetype, arithmetic, √2, base, bases, binary numbers, combinatorics, digit, digit-strings, digits, double digits, π, number, numbers, pairs of digits, philosophy, philosophy of mathematics, Platonic realm, Platonism, quadruplets, recreational math, recreational mathematics, recreational maths, strings of digits, ternary numbers, triplets | Leave a comment

What’s special about the binary number 10011 and the ternary number 1001120221? To answer the question, you have to see double. 10011 contains all possible pairs of numbers created from 0 and 1, just as 1001120221 contains all possible pairs created from 0, 1 and 2. And each pair appears exactly once. Now try the quaternary number 10011202130322331. That contains exactly one example of all possible pairs created from 0, 1, 2 and 3.

But there’s something more: in each case, the number is the smallest possible number with that property. As the bases get higher, that gets less obvious. In quinary, or base 5, the smallest number containing all possible pairs is 10011202130314042232433441. The digits look increasingly random. And what about base 10? There are 100 possible pairs of numbers created from the digits 0 to 9, starting with 00, 01, 02… and ending with …97, 98, 99. To accommodate 100 pairs, the all-pair number in base 10 has to be 101 digits long. It’s a string of digits, so let’s call it a d-string:

1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0, 2, 1, 3, 0, 3, 1, 4, 0, 4, 1, 5, 0, 5, 1, 6, 0, 6, 1, 7, 0, 7, 1, 8, 0, 8, 1, 9, 0, 9, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 5, 2, 6, 2, 7, 2, 8, 2, 9, 3, 3, 4, 3, 5, 3, 6, 3, 7, 3, 8, 3, 9, 4, 4, 5, 4, 6, 4, 7, 4, 8, 4, 9, 5, 5, 6, 5, 7, 5, 8, 5, 9, 6, 6, 7, 6, 8, 6, 9, 7, 7, 8, 7, 9, 8, 8, 9, 9, 1

Again, the digits look increasingly random. They aren’t: they’re strictly determined. The d-string is in harmony. As the digits are generated from the left, they impose restrictions on the digits that appear later. It might appear that you could shift larger digits to the right and make the number smaller, but if you do that you no longer meet the conditions and the d-string collapses into dischord.

Now examine d-strings containing all possible triplets created from the digits of bases 2, 3 and 4:

1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 in base 2 = 558 in base 10

1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 1, 0 in base 3 = 23203495920756 in base 10

1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 3, 1, 3, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1, 3, 3, 0, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 1, 0 in base 4 = 1366872334420014346556556812432766057460 in base 10

Note that there are 8 possible triplets in base 2, so the all-triplet number has to be 10 digits long. In base 10, there are 1000 possible triplets, so the all-triplet number has to be 1002 digits long. Here it is:

1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 1, 0, 4, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 5, 0, 0, 5, 1, 0, 6, 0, 0, 6, 1, 0, 7, 0, 0, 7, 1, 0, 8, 0, 0, 8, 1, 0, 9, 0, 0, 9, 1, 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 1, 1, 4, 0, 1, 4, 1, 1, 5, 0, 1, 5, 1, 1, 6, 0, 1, 6, 1, 1, 7, 0, 1, 7, 1, 1, 8, 0, 1, 8, 1, 1, 9, 0, 1, 9, 1, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 3, 1, 2, 4, 0, 2, 4, 1, 2, 5, 0, 2, 5, 1, 2, 6, 0, 2, 6, 1, 2, 7, 0, 2, 7, 1, 2, 8, 0, 2, 8, 1, 2, 9, 0, 2, 9, 1, 3, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1, 3, 3, 0, 3, 3, 1, 3, 4, 0, 3, 4, 1, 3, 5, 0, 3, 5, 1, 3, 6, 0, 3, 6, 1, 3, 7, 0, 3, 7, 1, 3, 8, 0, 3, 8, 1, 3, 9, 0, 3, 9, 1, 4, 2, 0, 4, 2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 4, 3, 1, 4, 4, 0, 4, 4, 1, 4, 5, 0, 4, 5, 1, 4, 6, 0, 4, 6, 1, 4, 7, 0, 4, 7, 1, 4, 8, 0, 4, 8, 1, 4, 9, 0, 4, 9, 1, 5, 2, 0, 5, 2, 1, 5, 3, 0, 5, 3, 1, 5, 4, 0, 5, 4, 1, 5, 5, 0, 5, 5, 1, 5, 6, 0, 5, 6, 1, 5, 7, 0, 5, 7, 1, 5, 8, 0, 5, 8, 1, 5, 9, 0, 5, 9, 1, 6, 2, 0, 6, 2, 1, 6, 3, 0, 6, 3, 1, 6, 4, 0, 6, 4, 1, 6, 5, 0, 6, 5, 1, 6, 6, 0, 6, 6, 1, 6, 7, 0, 6, 7, 1, 6, 8, 0, 6, 8, 1, 6, 9, 0, 6, 9, 1, 7, 2, 0, 7, 2, 1, 7, 3, 0, 7, 3, 1, 7, 4, 0, 7, 4, 1, 7, 5, 0, 7, 5, 1, 7, 6, 0, 7, 6, 1, 7, 7, 0, 7, 7, 1, 7, 8, 0, 7, 8, 1, 7, 9, 0, 7, 9, 1, 8, 2, 0, 8, 2, 1, 8, 3, 0, 8, 3, 1, 8, 4, 0, 8, 4, 1, 8, 5, 0, 8, 5, 1, 8, 6, 0, 8, 6, 1, 8, 7, 0, 8, 7, 1, 8, 8, 0, 8, 8, 1, 8, 9, 0, 8, 9, 1, 9, 2, 0, 9, 2, 1, 9, 3, 0, 9, 3, 1, 9, 4, 0, 9, 4, 1, 9, 5, 0, 9, 5, 1, 9, 6, 0, 9, 6, 1, 9, 7, 0, 9, 7, 1, 9, 8, 0, 9, 8, 1, 9, 9, 0, 9, 9, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 4, 2, 2, 5, 2, 2, 6, 2, 2, 7, 2, 2, 8, 2, 2, 9, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 2, 3, 5, 2, 3, 6, 2, 3, 7, 2, 3, 8, 2, 3, 9, 2, 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 2, 4, 5, 2, 4, 6, 2, 4, 7, 2, 4, 8, 2, 4, 9, 2, 5, 3, 2, 5, 4, 2, 5, 5, 2, 5, 6, 2, 5, 7, 2, 5, 8, 2, 5, 9, 2, 6, 3, 2, 6, 4, 2, 6, 5, 2, 6, 6, 2, 6, 7, 2, 6, 8, 2, 6, 9, 2, 7, 3, 2, 7, 4, 2, 7, 5, 2, 7, 6, 2, 7, 7, 2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 9, 2, 8, 3, 2, 8, 4, 2, 8, 5, 2, 8, 6, 2, 8, 7, 2, 8, 8, 2, 8, 9, 2, 9, 3, 2, 9, 4, 2, 9, 5, 2, 9, 6, 2, 9, 7, 2, 9, 8, 2, 9, 9, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 3, 5, 3, 3, 6, 3, 3, 7, 3, 3, 8, 3, 3, 9, 3, 4, 4, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 6, 3, 4, 7, 3, 4, 8, 3, 4, 9, 3, 5, 4, 3, 5, 5, 3, 5, 6, 3, 5, 7, 3, 5, 8, 3, 5, 9, 3, 6, 4, 3, 6, 5, 3, 6, 6, 3, 6, 7, 3, 6, 8, 3, 6, 9, 3, 7, 4, 3, 7, 5, 3, 7, 6, 3, 7, 7, 3, 7, 8, 3, 7, 9, 3, 8, 4, 3, 8, 5, 3, 8, 6, 3, 8, 7, 3, 8, 8, 3, 8, 9, 3, 9, 4, 3, 9, 5, 3, 9, 6, 3, 9, 7, 3, 9, 8, 3, 9, 9, 4, 4, 4, 5, 4, 4, 6, 4, 4, 7, 4, 4, 8, 4, 4, 9, 4, 5, 5, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 7, 4, 5, 8, 4, 5, 9, 4, 6, 5, 4, 6, 6, 4, 6, 7, 4, 6, 8, 4, 6, 9, 4, 7, 5, 4, 7, 6, 4, 7, 7, 4, 7, 8, 4, 7, 9, 4, 8, 5, 4, 8, 6, 4, 8, 7, 4, 8, 8, 4, 8, 9, 4, 9, 5, 4, 9, 6, 4, 9, 7, 4, 9, 8, 4, 9, 9, 5, 5, 5, 6, 5, 5, 7, 5, 5, 8, 5, 5, 9, 5, 6, 6, 5, 6, 7, 5, 6, 8, 5, 6, 9, 5, 7, 6, 5, 7, 7, 5, 7, 8, 5, 7, 9, 5, 8, 6, 5, 8, 7, 5, 8, 8, 5, 8, 9, 5, 9, 6, 5, 9, 7, 5, 9, 8, 5, 9, 9, 6, 6, 6, 7, 6, 6, 8, 6, 6, 9, 6, 7, 7, 6, 7, 8, 6, 7, 9, 6, 8, 7, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 9, 6, 9, 7, 6, 9, 8, 6, 9, 9, 7, 7, 7, 8, 7, 7, 9, 7, 8, 8, 7, 8, 9, 7, 9, 8, 7, 9, 9, 8, 8, 8, 9, 8, 9, 9, 9, 1, 0

Consider the quadruplet number in base 10. There are 10000 possible quadruplets, so the all-quadruplet number is 10003 digits long. And so on. In general, the “all n-tuplet” number in base b contains b^n n-tuplets and is (b^n + n-1) digits long. If b = 10 and n = 4, the d-string starts like this:

1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 0, 3, 1, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 5, 1, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0, 6, 1, 0, 0, 7, 0, 0, 0, 7, 1, 0, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 8, 1, 0, 0, 9, 0, 0, 0, 9, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 3, 0, 0, 1, 3, 1, 0, 1, 4, 0, 0, 1, 4, 1, 0, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1, 5, 1, 0, 1, 6, 0, 0, 1, 6, 1, 0, 1, 7, 0, 0, 1, 7, 1, 0, 1, 8, 0, 0, 1, 8, 1, 0, 1, 9, 0, 0, 1, 9, 1, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2, 1, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0, 2, 3, 1, 0, 2, 4, 0, 0, 2, 4, 1, 0, 2, 5, 0, 0, 2, 5, 1, 0, 2, 6…

What about when n = 100? Now the d-string is ungraspably huge – too big to fit in the known universe. But it starts with 1 followed by a hundred 0s and every digit after that is entirely determined. Perhaps there’s a simple way to calculate any given digit, given its position in the d-string. Either way, what is the ontological status of the d-string for n=100? Does it exist in some Platonic realm of number, independent of physical reality?

Some would say that it does, just like √2 or π or e. I disagree. I don’t believe in a Platonic realm. If the universe or multiverse ceased to exist, numbers and mathematics in general would also cease to exist. But this isn’t to say that mathematics depends on physical reality. It doesn’t. Nor does physical reality depend on mathematics. Rather, physical reality necessarily embodies mathematics, which might be defined as “entity in interrelation”. Humans have invented small-m mathematics, a symbolic way of expressing the physical embodiment of big-m mathematics.

But small-m mathematics is actually more powerful and far-ranging, because it increases the number, range and power of entities and their interaction. Where are √2 and π in physical reality? Nowhere. You could say that early mathematicians saw their shadows, cast from a Platonic realm, and deduced their existence in that realm, but that’s a metaphor. Do all events, like avalanches or thunderstorms, exist in some Platonic realm before they are realized? No, they arise as physical entities interact according to laws of physics. In a more abstract way, √2 and π arise as entities of another kind interact according to laws of logic: the concepts of a square and its diagonal, of a circle and its diameter.

The d-strings discussed above arise from the interaction of simpler concepts: the finite set of digits in a base and the ways in which they can be combined. Platonism is unnecessary: the arc and spray of a fountain are explained by the pressure of the water, the design of the pipes, the arrangement of the nozzles, not by reference to an eternal archetype of water and spray. In small-m mathematics, there are an infinite number of fountains, because small-m mathematics opens a door to a big-U universe, infinitely larger and richer than the small-u universe of physical reality.

Rep-Tile Reflections

Saturday, 23rd Mar, 2013 by Krilling for Company in Astronomy, Geometry, Mathematics, Philosophy, Philosophy of mathematics, Rep-Tiles, Science and tagged alternative realities, alternative reality, √2, Big Bang, Big Crunch, Credo in Piscem Unum et Infinitum et Æternum, double-square, double-triangle, extraterrestrial intelligence, gas-based life, geometric, geometrical, geometry, half-square, hypotenuse, intelligence, intelligent life, math, math-based religion, math-religion, mathematical religion, mathemystic, mathemystic communion, mathemystical, mathemysticism, maths, maths-based religion, mental realm, metaphysical, metaphysics, mind, minds, mystic communism, parallel universe, parallel universes, powers of 9, powers of nine, psycho-math-space, rectangle, rectangles, Religion, rep-tile, Rep-Tiles, rep-triangle, rep-triangles, repeat-tile, repeat-tiles, repeating tile, repeating tiles, repetition-tile, repetition-tiles, right triangle, silicon-based life, speculation, speculatory, square, square root of 2, square root of two, Squares, tessellate, tessellation, tessellations, the fish, the sphinx, trans-biological communion, triangle, Triangles, universe | 5 Comments

A rep-tile, or repeat-tile, is a two-dimensional shape that can be divided completely into copies of itself. A square, for example, can be divided into smaller squares: four or nine or sixteen, and so on. Rectangles are the same. Triangles can be divided into two copies or three or more, depending on their precise shape. Here are some rep-tiles, including various rep-triangles:

Various rep-tiles — click for larger image

Some are simple, some are complex. Some have special names: the sphinx and the fish are easy to spot. I like both of those, particularly the fish. It would make a good symbol for a religion: richly evocative of life, eternally sub-divisible of self: 1, 9, 81, 729, 6561, 59049, 531441… I also like the double-square, the double-triangle and the T-tile in the top row. But perhaps the most potent, to my mind, is the half-square in the bottom left-hand corner. A single stroke sub-divides it, yet its hypotenuse, or longer side, represents the mysterious and mind-expanding √2, a number that exists nowhere in the physical universe. But the half-square itself is mind-expanding. All rep-tiles are. If intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe, perhaps other minds are contemplating the fish or the sphinx or the half-square and musing thus: “If intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe, perhaps…”

Mathematics unites human minds across barriers of language, culture and politics. But perhaps it unites minds across barriers of biology too. Imagine a form of life based on silicon or gas, on unguessable combinations of matter and energy in unreachable, unobservable parts of the universe. If it’s intelligent life and has discovered mathematics, it may also have discovered rep-tiles. And it may be contemplating the possibility of other minds doing the same. And why confine these speculations to this universe and this reality? In parallel universes, in alternative realities, minds may be contemplating rep-tiles and speculating in the same way. If our universe ends in a Big Crunch and then explodes again in a Big Bang, intelligent life may rise again and discover rep-tiles again and speculate again on their implications. The wildest speculation of all would be to hypothesize a psycho-math-space, a mental realm beyond time and matter where, in mathemystic communion, suitably attuned and aware minds can sense each other’s presence and even communicate.

Credo in Piscem…

So meditate on the fish or the sphinx or the half-square. Do you feel the tendrils of an alien mind brush your own? Are you in communion with a stone-being from the far past, a fire-being from the far future, a hive-being from a parallel universe? Well, probably not. And even if you do feel those mental tendrils, how would you know they’re really there? No, I doubt that the psycho-math-space exists. But it might and science might prove its existence one day. Another possibility is that there is no other intelligent life, never has been, and never will be. We may be the only ones who will ever muse on rep-tiles and other aspects of mathematics. Somehow, though, rep-tiles themselves seem to say that this isn’t so. Particularly the fish. It mimics life and can spawn itself eternally. As I said, it would make a good symbol for a religion: a mathemysticism of trans-biological communion. Credo in Piscem, Unum et Infinitum et Æternum. “I believe in the Fish, One, Unending, Everlasting.” That might be the motto of the religion. If you want to join it, simply wish upon the fish and muse on other minds, around other stars, who may be doing the same.

Overlord In Terms of Core Issues Around Maximal Engagement with Key Notions of the Über-Feral

მეფე (2) • მსოფლიოს (3) • მათემატიკა (5) •

Tag Archives: √2